Recent technological advances in the field of brain anatomy and cognitive science such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have allowed neuroscientists to make significant advances in explaining how the human brain converts sound waves into music. These findings are adding to an impressive body of evidence that suggests music can trigger physiological changes far beyond the purely cognitive.

Music can be defined as organised sound comprising the following structural elements: pitch, timbre, key, harmony, loudness (or amplitude), rhythm, meter, and tempo. Processing these elements involves almost every region of the brain and nearly every neural subsystem. We are going to examine how this happens.

The Auditory CortexSound does not exist outside of the brain; it is simply air molecules moving. Sound is produced by vibrating air molecules connecting with the eardrum at varying frequencies (pitch) and velocities (amplitude). The process starts with the brain’s primary auditory cortex receiving a signal from the eardrum/inner ear which immediately activates our ‘primitive’ brain, the cerebellum. The cerebellum is the oldest part of the brain in evolutionarily terms and plays an important part in motor control. It contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing of movements. The ear and the primitive brain are known collectively as the low-level processing units. They perform the main feature extraction which allows the brain to start analysing the sounds, breaking down the sensory stimulus into pitch, timbre, spatial location, amplitude, reverberant environment, tone durations, and onset times of different notes.

This data is conducted through neurons in the brain; cells specialized in transmitting information, and the basic building blocks of the nervous system. The output of these neurons connects to the high-level processing units located in the frontal lobe of the brain. It is important to note that this process is not linear. The different regions of the brain constantly update each other with new information.

Once the cerebellum has broken down the initial sensory stimulus it passes the signal to the thalamus which interrogates the signals for any signs of danger. It does this by communicating with the hippocampus, the brain’s memory center, for stored historical sound/danger associations. The thalamus links to the amygdala to initiate an emotional response (e.g. fear if a danger signal is detected) in much the same way as the amygdala works out how one feels about the sight of someone brandishing a knife. It’s at this point that the “fight or flight” response kicks in. It is through this same interaction between the low-level and high-level processing units that the brain categorizes sound into music.

Brain Processing MusicThe brain is not like a warehouse or library of information. Historical information is stored in configurations of neurons. When a stimulus activates a certain configuration of neurons, historical information is retrieved. The high-level processing units construct musical features into a perceptual whole by constantly referencing historical information and additional stimulus passed on by the low-level processing units. As Daniel Levitin puts it in ‘This Is Your Brain on Music’, ‘music can be thought of as a type of perceptual illusion in which our brain imposes structure and order on a sequence of sounds. Just how this structure leads us to emotional reactions is part of the mystery of music’.

So to understand how our brains process music we need to examine these neural codes. The activation of neurons is called ‘firing’. Firing is an electrical signal that releases chemical substances called neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters swim in gaps between the neurons called synapses. Neurotransmitters not only cause a neuron to fire but can also prevent it from doing so. Some neurotransmitters are used throughout the entire nervous system; some are particular to certain brain regions, or even certain groups of neurons. For example, Dopamine produced by the nucleus accumbens, is critical to the co-ordination of movement, the regulation of mood and the brain’s reward system. This neurotransmitter is released when a drug addict receives a drug of choice, when a compulsive gambler wins a bet or when a chocoholic ingests cocoa. It is widely accepted that increased levels of dopamine result in a more positive mood which is why many of the newer anti-depressant drugs emulate this approach. Similarly, Serotonin produced in the brain stem is known to regulate mood and sleep. Again, many of the contemporary anti-depressant drugs including Prozac and Zoloft act as a Serotonin reuptake inhibitor, causing the neurotransmitter to act on the brain for longer periods of time.

It is because music unconsciously triggers these neurotransmitters that it has such a powerful influence over mood states.

Changes in mood are inextricably linked to changes in behavioural response and this is why music can be such a powerful tool to employ in a commercial environment. Structural elements of music have been proven to influence consumer behaviour. For example, increased volume of background music has been shown to increase the speed at which bar customers consume drinks, consequently increasing bar revenue over time.

The benefits of music are not just limited to customers but can be applied to the workforce as well. 85% of MusicWorks research participants said listening to music they like whilst at work makes them much happier and the MusicWorks study also revealed that one-third of employees are less likely to take time off work if background music is played in the workplace. According to the Institute of Leadership & Management’s website, managers could cut the number of sick days by seven million simply by switching on the radio.

A Research on Mood, Intelligence, Learning, Epilepsy & Mozart Effects

Classical Music and Mood

Classical music has been found to reduce tension and enhance specific types of intelligence such as verbal ability and spatial-temporal reasoning, though it does not increase general intelligence. Interestingly, Mozart’s music has also shown some benefits for those who suffer from epilepsy.

Studies suggest that listening to classical music decreases tension, even in those for whom classical music is not their preferred genre. However, listening to classical music does not necessarily affect other feelings. The ability of music to influence feelings appears to vary depending on musical preference.

Classical Music and Linguistic Abilities

A number of research studies have supported the fact that classical music can have a positive effect on linguistic abilities. One study found that those who listened to Vivaldi while exercising had increased scores on verbal fluency tests after their workouts compared to those who exercised without music.

In another study in Hong Kong of 90 boys between the ages of 6 and 15, those who learned to play music with their school’s string orchestra program scored higher on tests of verbal memory than a control group that did not receive musical training. The boys in the music group were also able to learn more new words than those in the control group.

The Mozart Effect

The Mozart effect has been the subject of much research in recent years, after it was found that listening to Mozart’s music may increase specific types of intelligence, particularly spatial-temporal abilities.

After at least 10 minutes of exposure to Mozart music, spatial abilities do increase temporarily (for about 15 minutes). However, children who were given keyboarding lessons, taught musical notation and other music-related skills, and learned to play simple melodies by Mozart and Beethoven achieved scores that were approximately 30% higher on tests of spatial-temporal reasoning than children of the same age who did not receive musical training, and these effects did not diminish over time. Thus, it appears that greater gains can be achieved by not only listening to music but also learning about it and creating it.

The Mozart effect also occurs with other music that is similar to Mozart’s, and animals are also subject to the effect. Mice and rats solve mazes faster after exposure to Mozart’s music. This indicates that it is more than simple enjoyment of the music that enhances certain types of intelligence.

Mozart’s Music and Epilepsy

Mozart’s music has a beneficial effect on those suffering from epilepsy. A study of epileptics found that listening to Mozart’s music, even when unconscious, decreased epileptiform brain activity in the majority of subjects. A case study of one girl found that her seizures decreased significantly after listening to Mozart for just 10 minutes of each waking hour.

If used correctly, music can potentially be a very powerful tool for almost every kind of organisation. There are broadly four contexts in which this is true of music.

1.Encouraging a positive attitude towards a product by associating it with emotionally connecting music. Think the Cadbury’s Flake commercial.

2.Improving the comprehension of a message by syncing it with congruent music. Many commercials with a call to action employ music that lyrically reinforces the message

3.Changing the tempo of human activity through beats per minute and volume. Playing slower and softer music can encourage customers to stay longer and spend more money (see examples below).

4.Shifting the listener’s emotional state to encourage a different behaviour. According to research by Entertainment Media Research, four in five people frequently listen to music to deliberately put themselves in a more    positive frame of mind

Probably the most well-known example of a music research experiment was conducted by North, Hargreaves and McKendrick. This involved playing a mixture of French and German music next to a supermarket display of French and German wines over a two week period. When French music was played, French wine outsold German wine by five bottles to one. Conversely when German music was played, German wine outsold French wine by nearly two bottles to one.

A similar experiment was conducted by North and Yeoh in Malaysia. Students were given a choice of Malaysian or Indian food after being played music from one of the two countries. When Malay music was played, three times as many participants chose Malay than Indian food. When Indian music was played, nearly six times as many respondents chose Indian over Malay food.

The tempo, volume or pitch of the music is another influential variable of direct relevance to retailers. A study on background music by Sullivan carried out in a medium-sized mid-range restaurant found that the playing of soft music led to meal durations 20% longer than when loud music was played and as a consequence the amount of money spent on food in the restaurant was 7.5% higher. A separate study by Caldwell and Hibbert found that when slow music was played in restaurants the time spent dining was 20% longer but 51% more money was spent on drink per head and 12% more on food per head.

Several studies now link the influence of music on brain activity to behavioral response. Recently published articles investigate the influence of music on brain activity by trying to make sense of how we listen to music. It claims that the act of listening is actually an act of neural prediction.

The ability to anticipate forthcoming events has clear evolutionary advantages, and predictive successes or failures often entail significant psychological and physiological consequences. In music perception, the confirmation and violation of expectations are critical to the communication of emotion and aesthetic effects of a composition.

Researchers examined the brain waves of twenty participants while they listened to various hymns. They found that it was the unanticipated pitches, outside of the melodic pattern, that caused a spike in brain activity and an interesting sequence of neural events.

An element of surprise required to activate certain neural processes but that music affects some primary neural mechanisms. It is common knowledge that music is linked to emotional response as we experience it on daily basis but observing how background music can affect behavior can be far more powerful.

Not only can playing music in the workplace improve the morale of your staff, but by helping to establish a better atmosphere it can also make your place of business more appealing to customers and the way they do business with you.

Using music to soothe customers who are forced to wait for service – be it on the telephone or in a queue – has been proven to work, as research has shown that people are likely to be more patient if they are played music.

Shops and stores use music to keep customers on their premises longer, and therefore are more likely to buy, while mood music has been found to vastly improve the experience for diners in restaurants. For example, a fast tempo music can lead to customers finishing their meals quicker. Customers are also more likely to return to a restaurant whose ambience is enhanced by music, than one which does not use music.

Similar benefits can be reaped across nearly every form of commercial activity and that is why music is ubiquitous no matter where you go in public these days, be that in shopping malls, supermarkets, fashion boutiques, pubs and bars, doctors’ surgeries, hairdressers, art galleries, on aircraft and just about anywhere else you can think of.

There are several types of deejays. Radio DJs introduce and play music that is broadcast on AM, FM, shortwave, digital, or online radio stations. Club DJs select and play music in a bar, club, disco, at a rave, or even in a stadium.

Hip-hop deejays select and play music using multiple turntables, often to back up one or more MCs. The reggae deejay is a vocalist who raps or chats over pre-recorded rhythm tracks while the individual choosing and playing them is referred to as a selector. Mobile DJs travel with portable sound systems and work at a variety of events.

A good DJ should have the basis of his appeal firmly rooted in the choice of music he plays, his range and how he allows one track to relate to another. In this day and age many DJs are more likely to try to impress with technical ability, as oppossed to their skill in selecting music.  What definitely makes the difference, is the DJs ability to CREATE ATMOSPHERE with his musical selection.